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1.) hindsight bias

2.) overconfidence

3.) critical thinking

4.) theory… hypotheses

5.) operational definitions… replicate

6.) description, correlation, experimentation

7.) survey… wording

8.) describe

9.) illusory correlation

 

10.) correlated… predict… positively correlated… negatively correlated  

2.) Answers to item #3 in the white handout (President ages at inauguration):
 
Let me remind you that these calculations are being made based on the first column only. The first step is to figure out the value of the variance, and then we can easily find the standard deviation. Both the variance and the standard deviation reflect the amount of oscillation above and below the mean in a distribution; in other words, we’re trying to answer this question: How spread is this distribution of ages around the mean? Or, on average how do scores deviate from the mean? (Recall that in our case the mean is the average of ages, that is, 56.57).

To find the variance, let’s first subtract each value from the mean, as follows:

56.57 – 57 = -0.43

56.57 – 61 = -4.43

56.57 – 57 = -0.43

56.57 – 57 = -0.43

56.57 – 58 = -1.43

56.57 – 57 = -0.43

56.57 – 61 = -4.43

56.57 – 54 = 2.57

56.57 – 68 = -11.43

56.57 – 51 = 5.57

56.57 – 49 = 7.57

56.57 – 64 = -7.43

56.57 – 50 = 6.57

56.57 – 48 = 8.57

We now know how much each President in the list deviates from the mean. But we want to square those values in order to get rid of negative values – remember: We’re measuring deviance from the mean, and it doesn’t matter whether the deviance is above or below the mean. So, let’s square those values, like this:

(-0.43)2 = 0.18

(-4.43)2 = 19.62

(-0.43)2 = 0.18

(-0.43)2 = 0.18

(-1.43)2 = 2.04

(-0.43)2 = 0.18

(-4.43)2 = 19.62

(2.57)2 = 6.6

(-11.43)2 = 130.64

(5.57)2 = 31.02

(7.57)2 = 57.3

(-7.43)2 = 55.20

(6.57)2 = 43.16

(8.57)2 = 73.44

Because we’re after the variance for the sample, and not for each individual, we need to add the positive values that we just got, like this:

0.18 + 19.62 + 0.18 + 0.18 + 2.04 + 0.18 + 19.62 + 6.6 + 130.64 + 31.02 + 57.3 + 55.20 + 43.16 + 73.44 = 439.36

Now, to find the average of deviance from the mean in the sample, we divide 439.36 by the number of individuals in our sample, 14, yielding 31.38. This is the average of the sum of squares, which by definition is our variance.

To figure out our standard deviation, all we need to do is extract the square root of the variance, that is, 5.60.

More of this fun stuff in our Lab session #1. See you then! As always, please let me know if you have any questions.
 
3.) Answers to Study Guide #1:

   1. formal
   2. Cognitive
   3. Structuralists / functionalists
   4. description/ correlation/ experimentation
   5. case study
   6. correlated/ predict/ positively correlated
   7. scatter plots
   8. illusory correlation/ superstitions
   9. experiments (experimentation)
  10. placebo/ placebo effect
  11. double – blind procedure
  12. independent/ dependent
  13. organize/ bar graph (histogram)
  14. mean/ mode/ median
  15. mode / 50th
  16. crude/ is / more accurate/ takes
  17. zero/ -1 / +1/ decreases
  18. dendrites / axons/ myelin sheath
  19. excitatory/ inhibitory/ threshold/ will not/ all-or-none
  20. central/ peripheral
  21. somatic / sympathetic
  22. reflexes/ spinal cord/ knee-jerk/ pain
  23. PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)
  24. limbic/ hippocampus
  25. amygdala
  26. hypothalamus/ hunger/ thirst/ body temperature (or sex)
  27. Aphasia/ Broca’s area/ Wernicke’s Area’s/ angular gyrus
  28. right/ name/ right
  29. have/ right/ left
  30. behavior geneticists/ nongenetic
  31. twin/ adoption
  32. identical/ fraternal/ more
  33. do not/ does/ higher
  34. nature / nurture / stages
  35. zygote/ differentiate/embryo/ fetus
  36. rooting reflex
  37. 3
  38. schemes / accommodation
  39. object permanence/ 8
  40. conservation/ have not
  41. 6 or 7/ concrete operational
  42. touch (body contact)/ familiarity / goslings
  43. insecure/ secure
  44. competence
  45. unrelated
  46. earlier/ later / secular trend.
  47. menarche/ 13/ 14
  48. early/ early/ emotional maturity
  49. Kohlberg/ preconventional/ conventional/ post-conventional
  50. punishment / rewards
  51. adolescence/approval/ order
  52. post-conventional
  53. more/ less
  54. slows/ brain cells
  55. dementia
  56. Alzheimer’s/ acetylcholine
  57. crystallized/ increase (or remain the same)
  58. fluid/ decrease

4.) Answers to peach handout on operant conditioning

 

1. + I Positive Reinforcement
2. + I Positive Reinforcement
3. - D Negative Punishment
4. + D Positive Punishment
5. + I Positive Reinforcement
6. - I Negative Reinforcement
7. + D Positive Punishment
8. - I Negative Reinforcement
9. + D Positive Punishment
10. 0 S No principle
11. - I Negative Reinforcement
12. - D Negative Punishment
13. + I Positive Reinforcement
14. + I Positive Reinforcement
15. - I Negative Reinforcement
 
5.) Answers to Study Guide #2:

 

1.) absolute threshold  /  50
2.) difference threshold  /  just noticeable difference
3.) Weber's law  /  stimulus  /  less
4.) sensory adaptation
5.) wavelength  /  hue / pitch
6.) intensity  /  amplitude  /  brightness / loudness
7.) lens  /  retina
8.) rods  /  cones  /  cones  /  rods
9.) bipolar  /  ganglion  /  optic nerve  /  brain
10.) blind spot
11.) visual cortex  /  feature detectors  /  parallel
12.) reflects  /  construction
13.) Young-Helmholtz  /  red  /  green  /  blue
14.) opponent  /  afterimage  /  Ewald Hering
15.) context
16.) figure  /  background  /  figures
17.) continuity  /  closure  /  proximity  /  similarity  /  connectedness
18.) visual cliff  /  mobility (or, crawling/walking)
19.) retinal disparity
20.) interposition
21.) relative size
22.) relative height
23.) relative motion (or, motion paralax)
24.) linear perspective
25.) light and shadow
26.) color constancy
27.) perceptual set
28.) context / stereotypes
29.) telepathy  /  clairvoyance  /  precognition  /  psychokinesis
30.) ganzfeld  /  beat  /  no effect
31.) circadian rhythm
32.) thinking  /  memory  /  evening  /  morning
33.) jet lag  /  bright light  /  suprachiasmatic  /  hypothalamus  /  sleep schedules
34.) 5 / delta  /  four  /  slow-wave  /  difficult  /  walking
35.) active  /  relaxed  /  paradoxical
36.) dream
37.) two-thirds  /  one-third
38.) later  /  early  /  6-7 /  accidents  /  immune  /  aging  /  obesity  /  hypertension
39.) brain.
40.) narcolepsy  /  REM  /  muscular tension
41.) sleep apnea
42.) night terrors  /  young children
43.) manifest  /  latent content
44.) information  /  REM
45.) physiological  /  stimulation  /  sift, sort, and fix  /  have
46.) REM rebound
47.) conditioned stimulus / unconditioned stimulus
48.) unconditioned response  /  conditioned response
49.) extinction / spontaneous recovery
50.) generalization  /  discrimination.
51.) stronger
52.) respondent (or, automatic)  /  operant
53.) Law of Effect  /  Skinner box (or, operant chamber)
54.) shaping  /  approximations (or, prerequisite behaviors)
55.) reinforcer / positive reinforcer
56.) negative reinforcer
57.) primary (or, unconditioned) reinforcers  /  secondary (or, conditioned) reinforcers
58.) modeling  /  observational learning  /  occurs
59.) Albert Bandura  /  more
60.) consistent  /  similar to observer  /  successful  /  admirable

 

1. flashbulb
2. working / RAM / limited / visual / verbal / 12 / 7 / 2  
3. H. Ebbinghaus / fewer / overlearning  
4. most / next-in-line  
5. spacing effect  
6. serial position effect / better / primacy  
7. imagery / mnemonic / “method of loci” 
8. peg-word  
9. chunks / acronym  
10. hierarchies  
11. storage  
12. sensory / about half / full report / more / partial report / iconic / less / 9  
13. echoic  
14. digits / letters / better  
15. unlimited / long  
16. episodic / procedural / semantic  
17. interfere / decays  
18. retroactive interference  
19. repression / less  
20. a) leading interrogation / b) talking with others about the event / c) watching TV or reading about the event / misinformation / source amnesia  
21. encoding / never  
22. soon / storage failure  
23. retrieval failure / similar  
24. proactive positive transfer / proactive interference  
25. are / 3 / infantile  
26. can / Bible
27. concepts / hierarchies / are  
28. prototype / male / logic  
29. trial and error  
30. algorithms  
31. heuristics  
32. insight  
33. confirmation bias  
34. fixation (or mental set) 
35. functional fixedness  
36. representativeness heuristic  
37. availability heuristic  
38. overconfidence  
39. adaptive / more / easier / does  
40. framing  
41. belief perseverance  
42. association / imitation / reinforcement / behaviorist  
43. rapid acquisition of vocabulary and grammar during child development / children’s language errors (e.g., fishes, I eated my lunch) are not imitation of adult speech / grammar development in a predictable sequence regardless of specific language.  
44. linguistic determinism  
45. does  
46. intelligence / self-esteem  
47. can / mental  
48. mutual  
49. counting / numerical / insight  
50. sign language  
51. gestural  
52. general / specific  
53. multiple intelligences / physical / academic / professional  
54. academic (analytic) / creative (experiential) / practical (contextual)  
55. creativity / 120